Umayyad Caliphate (661-750):
Capital: Damascus
After the brutal killing of Hazrat Usman, Hazrat Ali was elected Caliph with majority. Here, both of Mujtahids (Hazrat Ali & Hazrat Muawiya), did ijtihad. According to Hazrat Ali: Let me stabilize my position as a Caliph to punish the killers, because they have a very stronghold. And, according to Hazrat Ameer Muawiya: Killers should be executed before the election for the Caliph.
Features of Umayyad Dynasty:
First Muslim dynasty
End of Islamic Caliphate and start of hereditary caliphate (so-called)
Expansion of military
Incorporation of Sindh, Hispania and Transoxiana
Stability in Muslim world
Established first postal service in Islam
Abdul Malik Bin Marwan: was the real founder of the Umayyad dynasty. Moreover, his closest governor was Hajjaj Bin Yusuf.
His contributions to the dynasty;
Dome of Rock at Jerusalem
Introduced Islamic gold currency i.e. Dinar
Promotion of Arabic language
Arabic as national language across the dynasty
Centralized government
Reunification of dynasty
Suppression of rebellions
Improved postal and road network across the Muslim world
Umar bin Abdul Aziz: Is regarded as the most pious among Umayyad rulers. His mother was granddaughter of the 2nd Caliph of Islam Hazrat Umar. He said, “O people! Obey me as long as I obey Allah, otherwise, you are not bound to obey me.”
After assuming the office, he brought significant reforms:
He deposited all wealth allotted for the Caliph; abandoned the royal palace; wore rough clothes; often went in public unrecognized; and abandoned all property taken by his relatives illegally.
Equality of Arabs and non-Arab Muslims (Mawali). He again exempted jizya on newly converts, moreover non-Arab Muslim army got same privileges like land, spoils and salaries as that of their Arab counterparts.
Issued order to collect Hadith.
Divided provincial administration and appointed competent administrators.
Withdrew the army from Constantinople siege due to massive loss.
Sent Muslims emissaries to non-Arab countries, which resulted in mass-conversions due to which Jizya tax was reduced. When officials complained about reduced revenue collection, he replied that he accepted the Caliphate to preach Islam but not as a collector of revenue.
Note: Much of the anti-Umayyad literature was written in the later period of Abbasids in Persia.
Architecture: Umayyad constructed mosques, palaces, garrisons, in which Byzantine like architecture was used. Dome of Rock at Jerusalem and Umayyad Mosque at Damascus are famous for their art and designing.
Cordoba Emirate (Umayyad in exile) also established many architectural projects like Alhambra and Cordoba mosque, where calligraphy is used.
Muslims in Spain (Al-Andalus):
Al-Andalus is in Iberian Peninsula, which covers the area of modern-day Spain, Portugal and some parts of France.
Under the Al Walid I of the Umayyad Dynasty, governor Musa bin Nusair with commander Tariq bin Ziyad landed at Gibraltar with an army of 7000 men. It became a province of the Umayyad Dynasty. Regional capital was set at Cordoba. Relations between Arabs and Berbers had been tense in the years after the conquest which resulted in the Berber revolt.
Umayyad rule in Spain (756-1031):
Caliphate of Cordoba
Capital: Cordoba
Due to the Abbasid dynasty, Exiled Umayyad Prince Abdul Rehman proclaimed himself Amir of Cordoba in 756. During his rule, major public works were completed, especially the Mosque of Cordoba. During the rule of Abdul Rehman II, there was stability and prosperity. Bureaucracy was well-organized and more efficient and many mosques were built across the empire. During his reign, Science and Arts flourished. Many scholars came from other countries, notably Abbas bin Firnass.
Inspired by the declaration of Caliphate by Fatimids, current ruling Amir Abd-al-Rehman joined the rebellion and declared himself Caliph in 929. This period was the golden age of Al-Andalus. Crops produced using irrigation, along with food imported from the Middle East, sparked the Arab Agricultural Revolution.
Al-Hakam-II was a patron of knowledge, who promoted science, technology, art, music, literature, etc. Under the Caliphate, Cordoba became the largest and most prosperous city in Europe. The work of its scientists (notably Al-Zahrawi and Ibn-e-Rushd) had a major influence on medieval Europe. Muslims and non-Muslims often come from foreign countries to study at libraries and universities of Al-Andalus, mainly after the establishment of translation institutions.
Michael Scot took the works of Ibn-e-Rushd and Ibn-e-Sina to Italy. This transmission of ideas significantly gave rise to the European Renaissance.
Luxury items (silk, ceramics, gold), essential food stuff (grain, olive oil) and containers (ceramics for storing perishables) were major cross-border trade items.
Emirate of Granada (756-1031):
After the fall of Cordoba in 1236, Nasirid Emirs of Granada declared Emirate of Granada as a tributary state under the Crown of Castile by paying gold and military assistance.
After the campaign of Reconquista against Muslims of Spain, to expel them from Spain. Granada was a safe place for fleeing Muslims. The Church supported the Reconquista and asked Christian rulers to provide funds and forces for this movement. Internal political rifts especially in bordering areas resulted in siege and invasion of its towns one by one. In 1492, the Emirate of Granada surrendered. Ferdinand and Isabella were in the forefront for the fall of Granada.
After the fall of the Granada, Reconquista gained momentum. Muslims and Jews were given the option either to convert to Christianity or to be exiled. As a result forced conversions and killings took place across Spain. In the city council of Granada, the fall of Granada and Alhambra palace is celebrated every year.