What is Millet system and Tanzimat in Ottoman Empire. Role of Army in Turkish Politics? Reasons of Military interference in the politics of Turkey? Civil-Military relationship of Turkey? Martial Law and Coup D’état History of Turkey? What is Political System of Turkey? And how a president is elected?
In Ottoman Empire, there was a Millet system.
According to the millet system, minorities were allowed to make their own laws
to rule themselves by their own leaders and to solve their legal matters in
their own courts. They were allowed to collect and distribute the taxes and to administrate
their lands. In case of conflict between two millets, the law of the injured
party was to followed, but in case of conflict between a Muslim and non-Muslim,
dispute falls under the Sharia Law.
Millet system was introduced from the early times of the
Ottoman Empire. As Ottoman Empire was very large and covering many non-Muslim
minorities and ethnicities. To make the Empire strong and to keep peace and
harmony internally, millet concept was introduced. Because of the millet concept,
Ottoman Empire was peaceful and prosper for centuries.
Almost all of the minorities were flourishing peacefully under
the Ottoman Empire because of their participation in their own legislations and
their administration affairs. Christians and Jews were treated very well and
were considered as people of the Book and have special rights and privileges
under the Islamic Sharia Law. In those days Jews were persecuted in European countries
and they were looking Ottoman Empire as a safe heaven. In 19th
century Russian Jews group, who were pioneers in the movement of the Jews
resettlement in the Palestine land, asked the permission of the Sultan for the
settlement under the millet system. Because millet system allows greater independence
of the minorities with a little interference of the Empire.
After the French Revolution, elite class of the Ottoman
Empire and bureaucrats were influenced from the European culture, which
increased the number of Ottoman students in the France. Because of French Revolution,
nationalism was emerging in the European countries, which affected the Ottoman
Empire. In 18th century, to counter the nationalisms, Ottoman Empire
introduced Tanzimat, to secure the territorial integrity because of
nationalist movements. Ottoman Empire made Malta Treaty with Great Britain,
which gave relaxations to the British traders have access to Empire’s markets
and give tax equally to the local merchants. Malta treaty was made because,
British Government helped the Ottoman Empire to crush the Egyptian’s rebellion.
During the tanzimat period, civil liberties were introduced, Army recruitment
process was changed, western-like uniform was introduced for the army and civil
servants etc. A policy called “Ottomanism” was introduced to unite different
people living in Ottoman Empire. Muslims and non-Muslims were declared equal
before law. Religion law was replaced with secular law.
After the WWI, Ottoman Empire was ended in 1922, and the
territories were divided and came under the British rule, because of Empire’s
alliance was with Germany. War of Independence started in Turkey by the Turkish
National Movement, which established the Grand National Assembly of Turkey
in 1920 and Mustafa Kemal Pasha was the first speaker of the assembly. He
was very popular among army ranks because he was the one who never loss a
single war. GNA (Grand National Assembly) appointed him as Commander-in-Chief of
the forces. Turkey won the war of independence in 1923 against foreign invaders.
Mustafa Kamal fought bravely in the independence war and was given the title of
Ghazi. Mustafa Kamal Pasha founded the Republic of Turkey and served as the
first President (1923-1938) until his death. Mustafa Kamal Pasha was
given the surname Ataturk (father of Turks) by the Turkish Parliament in 1934.
Mustafa Kamal Ataturk separate the religion from the government,
modernized the Turkey with his secular and liberal ideas, known for Kemalism,
Ataturkism and The Six Arrows. Kemalism is the founding ideology of the
Turkey. Kamalism has six principles: Republicanism, Populism, Nationalism, Laicism,
Statism, Reformism. He reformed the Turkey altogether different from its
predecessor Ottoman Empir. Kamalism is the next step of the Tanzimat. He banned
religious activities outside the religious places and put the religious activities
under the supervision of the state. He was anti-clerical. He changed the Latin
alphabet with Turkish alphabet. He banned the call to prayer in Arabic and closed
thousands of mosques. He promoted science and technology, urbanization, industrialization.
He implemented universal suffrage in elections. He introduced free education
and opened thousands of new schools across the country. Peoples were declared
sovereign. French model was ideal for Ataturk. He was the advocate of liberty
from religious. After the demise of Mustafa Kamal Pasha Ataturk, his followers went
on extreme in passing secular policies. Women were banned to do hijab in universities
and government institutes. Religious scholars were harassed and most of the
religious activities were banned. Kemalists suppressed the Sufism. Single
curriculum was introduced for secular and religious schools. Turkish surname
was compulsory to go for pilgrimage to Macca.
Why Military interventions happened in the Turkey? As
discussed above, Mustafa Kamal Pasha was a Commander in Chief of the
Turkish Armed Forces and was the founding father of the Turkey. He introduced
secularism in the state through the constitution. Kemalist ideology was
declared unchangeable. After the foundation of the Turkey, military perceived
herself the custodian of the secularism and democracy. Anyone who went a little
against the secular lines set by the constitution, was overthrown by the military.
Let’s discuss the history of the coup d’états and military intervention in Turkey.
There have been three successful coups and 3 memorandums by
Turkish military and six unsuccessful attempts of Coup d’états in the country. In
1960, when the government gave relaxations to the religion; reopening
thousands of the closed mosques, allowing call to prayer in Arabic and gave
permission to open some religious schools. In 1971, was the intervention
of the military through a memorandum as an ultimatum to the government. After
1960’s coup, government was given to the General of Turkish Army. He failed to serve politically and economically. Left and Right wings were attacking on each
other. Universities were unable to resume their studies, kidnappings and
killings were common. Currency was devaluing day by day since 1960. In 1971, an interim government was installed, and in
1973 an army officer was made President. In 1980, when the government
failed to stabilize economy and peace in the country. During this period,
thousands were assassinated in conflicts between left and right wings.
Turkish Armed Forces imposed martial law and dissolved the government in 1980.
An army office assumed the seat of President. In 1997, when a right-wing
political party won the elections of 1995. In 1997, military issued recommendations
to the prime minister to enforce some laws; 8 years compulsory education to
prevent the students to enroll in religious schools and headscarf ban at
universities and some other measures. Prime Minister was forced to resign, even
after accepting military recommendations. During presidential election in 2007,
Turkish armed forces displayed a memorandum on their official website, to warn
the Islamist party, who was clearly winning. As the wife of the head of the
political party wore scarf and the manifesto of the party was Islamic, military’s
memorandum gave warnings; do not dare to change the foundations (secularism) of
the Turkish constitution. They said that if anyone goes against the Kamal
Ataturk’s beliefs and ideology will have to face the consequences. In response
to this, government of Turkey, EU and USA did not appreciate to these warnings and suggested to respect the democratic values. Apart from these coup d’états, military memorandums and forced resignations, some unsuccessful coup d’états and
plans were also made by the Turkish armed forces. There was an unsuccessful coup d’état
in 2016 by a fraction within the Turkish armed forces to topple the government
of the Recep Tayyip Erdogan. This coup was failed, because of the armed forces
loyal to the state defeated the rebel forces. Investigations revealed that the
Fethullah Gulen’s movement was behind the attempted coup. After the 2017’s
referendum, constitutional amendments have decreased the risk of military interventions.
Selection of President: Requirements: 40 years old,
having higher education degree and if member of the Grand National Assembly of
Turkey, must resign. 600 members for the parliament are elected for 5 years
term. Those members who are at least 40 years old and having higher education
are elected for the post of president by citizens. A party having majority
votes and members makes government.
Political System of the Republic of Turkey: There is
unitary political system in Turkey, with separation of powers. President is the
Executive head along with his Cabinet (Council of Ministers). Grand National
Assembly of Turkey has the legislative powers, and Judiciary is independent. Bills
can be introduced by any member of the Parliament. After the passing of bill,
it goes to president for approval. If president gives his assent, it becomes a
law. If president veto the bill or send it to parliament for some changings,
parliament changes it or in case of veto approves it without president’s assent
with an absolute majority (301). In 2017, a referendum approved some amendments
in the constitution of Turkey. Parliamentary democratic system was replaced
with Presidential system and executive presidency. President is the head of
state and head of government, given power to appoint Supreme Board of Judges.
Number of seats of parliament (Grand National Assembly of Turkey) raised to
600.
(Note: This article covers all questions regarding Ottoman Empire and Turkish Political System in CSS and PMS past Political Science, Islamic History and Culture papers)