Features of a Professional and Apolitical Bureaucracy

    For effective and good governance, professional and an apolitical bureaucracy is prerequisite. A professional and an apolitical bureaucracy is composed of skilled, experienced, neutral, expert, experienced and efficient individuals. In addition to this, the bureaucracy is trained to deliver excellent public service to ensure welfare of the people and to make a law and order environment in the country. Here are salient features of a professional and an apolitical bureaucracy:

• Neutrality: A professional and an apolitical bureaucracy has no political involvement and tries hard to expel political pressure. Moreover, a professional and an apolitical bureaucrat doesn’t let politics be involved in his decision making and administration working.
• Merit based recruitment: A professional and an apolitical bureaucracy is recruited through a merit based system. It has been observed that a candidate recruited on merit works on merit. It is pertinent to mention here that a bureaucrat is selected after a strict, transparent and uncompromising selection procedure. Moreover, a professional and an apolitical bureaucracy is trained in such a manner that they can ensure merit, justice, good governance and grievance redressal through administration.
• Equity: A professional and an apolitical bureaucracy ensures fairness and equity while serving the country. They ensure equal distribution of resources, maintaining law and order, and justice at the disposal of the citizen.
• Good governance: The most prominent feature of a professional and an apolitical bureaucracy is good governance. They ensure distribution of resources with the use of power in such a manner that justice would prevail for everyone irrespective of any conditionality.
• Accountability: A professional and an apolitical bureaucracy is accountable before the law and is committed to ensure accountability procedure in the state.
• Transparency: A professional and an apolitical bureaucracy works transparently so that institutes could enjoy the confidence of the people in the public offices and the government.

In a nutshell, a professional and an apolitical bureaucracy is the backbone to good governance, efficiency, accountability, transparency and smooth service delivery. Moreover, a professional and an apolitical bureaucracy is a prerequisite in the contemporary world to meet the challenges of modernization and globalization.

Hawthorne Effects & Development of HRM School of Thought

George Elton Mayo (1880-1949) was an Australian psychologist, researcher and theorist. He wrote “The Human Problems of an Industrialised Civilization” in 1933. Moreover, he was Critique of Taylorism (Scientific Management) and laid the foundation of the Human Relations Movement that further gave rise to HRM (Human Resource Management).

What is the Hawthorne Effect? (Hawthorne Works – Electric factory). A type of reactivity in which individuals modify an aspect of their behaviour in response to their awareness of being observed. He worked to reduce a high turnover rate in a textile plant. In his research, he experimented on employees like change in rest period, grouping, incentives, etc. 

The Human Relations School of Thought was started by Mayo, focused on managers' behavior towards workers, treating workers as people and respecting their opinions and gave more importance to their mutual interaction.

Administrative Behaviour is a process by which people within an organisation work. According to “Administrative Behaviour: A book written by Herbert A. Simon,” States that decision-making plays a pivotal role in Administration and psychology of human choice, and it should not be ignored.

Human Resource Management is a strategic approach for efficient and effective management of human capital in a company to ensure that the organisation is achieving success through its employees. HRM concerned with performing activities like; employee recruitment, training, reward on performance, issue resolving, pay and benefits.

Theory X & Y of Motivation:

Theory X assumes that a worker is not interested in the organisation's interest and works only under strict surveillance. Whereas, Theory Y says that every worker is creative and works under desirable circumstances. Therefore, it is the responsibility of the management to provide a suitable environment to get better output.

Causes of Corruption in Pakistan

In 1996 the international anti-corruption NGO Transparency International (TI) rated Pakistan as the second most corrupt country out of the 54 they had surveyed.  The joke making the rounds in Pakistan at the time was that Pakistan was actually in first place but the government had bribed TI to put Nigeria ahead of Pakistan!

The culture of corruption was promoted in the colonial system of administration by the award of lands, titles and jobs to a specific group supporting colonial objectives as part of political bribery. settlement of refugee claims.

Major issues which have been the main cause of corruption:

• Public Utilities

• The Tax Regime (Evasion/Leakage)

• Public Sector Banking

• Public Sector Expenditures

• Underground Economy

Main Causes of Anti-Corruption Failure:

• Misuse of the Agencies by Successive Governments

• Poor investigations and lack of professional expertise

• Misuse of mandate by the Investigating Agencies

• Lack of Fair and Just Accountability

• Kinship based politics

• Military interference (directly or indirectly)

• The Incompatible Legal Judicial System

• Appointment of Heads of Investigating Agencies on political grounds

• In-adequacies & Institutional Weakness of the Anti-Corruption Agencies

Various acts/laws regarding anti-corruption have been passed since 1947. Moreover, for the prevention of corruption, departments like FIA, Ombudsman, NAB, Anti-Corruption have been established, but useless.

First Director General of NAB , was removed because he wanted to extend ‘accountability’ to senior military officers. The National Reconciliation Ordinance (NRO) gave Benazir Bhutto, Asif Ali Zardari and a few other politicians and some 8,000 civil servants full immunity for all acts committed between 1986 and 1999. After assuming presidency, Mr. Asif Ali Zardari, NAB could not pursue corrupt politicians but only go after relatively low-ranking bureaucrats. That’s why NAB became a toy in the hands of the establishment and the pro-establishment government to punish opposition.

What is Decentralisation in Administration? & its Types

Transfer/distribution of power/authority/functions/management/responsibility from centre to subordinate units is called decentralisation.

Types of decentralisation: 

1. Political

2. Administrative

3. Fiscal

Administrative decentralisation:

Distribution of administrative functions/authority from central government to subordinate fields/units.

Types of administrative decentralisation:

1. Deconcentration: Shifting decision-making, financial and management functions among divisions/units of central government. For example, FBR, FIA, PSP, PR, NHA, etc.

2. Delegation: Transfer decision-making and administrative powers to public sector organisations / state owned enterprises for efficiency and profit. Like PTCL, Electric Supply Companies, NFC, PIA, PSO, Pakistan Railways, Pakistan Steel Mills, State Life, WAPDA etc.

3. Devolution: Transfer of decision-making, management and financial powers to local government. Mayor/Nazim runs the local government affairs with the help of elected representatives of the citizens at local level.

Local Government System of Pakistan

Local Government system is the management at local level by local representatives. It is the best tool to solve grass-root level issues. According to Article 10-A of the Constitution of Pakistan (1973), the provincial government is responsible to establish local government.

Local Government System in British India: The Panchayat system was practiced by the Waderas/Zamindars in India, which continued during Mughal rule and even during British rule in India. The Wadera’s have strongholds at local level  through Panchayat (arbitration) and this practice was helpful for the rulers to maintain law & order, administration, revenue collection and political recruitment. In India, the British introduced the local government in Madras, Punjab and Sindh in 1688, 1843 and 1849 respectively. After 1857, local representatives were appointed by the British bureaucracy. The elections were conducted on a restricted franchise, where only educated and wealthy people could cast their vote. Somehow, these restrictions were reduced gradually. Moreover, the British government used civil and military bureaucracy to sustain their hold over India.

Local Government System in Pakistan: Different acts were passed in 1947, 1950, 1953 and 1954, but failed. The civil-military bureaucracy was a colonial legacy, which hampered the smooth functioning of political activism and smooth transfer of power through elections.

Ayub Khan’s Basic Democracies: To maintain his stronghold, President Ayub Khan introduced Basic Democracies (1959). In basic democracy, Pakistan was divided among 80,000 basic democrats (local bodies). Referendum held in 1960, and 75,283 basic democrats approved the presidency of General Ayub Khan. It was an experiment by donor countries to educate democracy and self-government to the people at grass-root level

Four Tiers: 

• Union councils and town committees.

• Tehsil councils, Municipal committees and Cantonment boards.

• District councils, having 50% official and 50% unofficial members.

• Divisional Councils, having 50% official and 50% unofficial members. Supervised by Divisional Commissioner.

Causes of Failure: Real power vested in bureaucracy and provincial government.

Pakistan People’s Party (1970-75): introduced rural local government and urban local government. But the Fall of Dhaka (1971) destroyed this local government system.

Zia ul Haq’s Sindh Ordinance – 1979:

Four Tiers: 

1. Town Committee

2. Municipal Committee

3. Municipal Corporation

4. Metropolitan Corporation

Bureaucratic interference was controlled. DC (Deputy Commissioner) was controlling authority and executive head of the district. Local government was empowered with taxation, resources and administration. The Panchayat system was established to solve issues regarding women, labour, farmers and minorities.

Causes of Failure: Bureaucratic interference in elections and decision making made it difficult to run smoothly. Provincial government delayed elections and budget allocation.

Pervez Musharraf’s Local Government Ordinance, 2001:

Seven-point agenda:

1. Rebuilding the national confidence and morale.

2. Strengthening the Federation, while removing inter-provincial disharmony.

3. Reviving and ensuring investor confidence.

4. Ensuring Law and Order and dispensing speedy justice.

5. De-politicizing state institutions.

6. Devolving power to grass-root level.

7. Ensuring swift and across the board accountability. (NAB- National Accountability Bureau)

Pervez Musharraf Devolution Plan: National Reconstruction Bureau (NRB) formulated recommendations for local government and police reforms on the advice of the then president Pervez Musharraf. Here is the devolution plan, which has 5D’s model:

D: Devolution of political power

D: Decentralisation of administrative authority

D: Deconcentration of management function

D: Distribution of resources to the districts

D: Diffusion of power-authority nexus

Three Tiers: 

1. Union Council

2. Tehsil Council

3. District Council

Divisional tier was abolished. Deputy Commissioner (DC) was replaced with District Coordination Officer (DCO).

Nawaz Sharif’s Local Govt Act, 2013:

In Punjab: Punjab Local Government Act, 2013

In KPK: Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Local Government Act, 2013

In Punjab, the lowest tier is the union council having one chairman. All chairmen will be members of the District council. Whereas in KPK, a little change was made in the 1979 LGO.

Punjab Local Government Act, 2019: The PTI government suspended the local government and passed Punjab Local Government, 2019. Somehow, the judicial order restored the previous local government. The PLGA, 2019 provided party based direct election for the seat of Mayor, like England, Turkey and USA.

Punjab Local Government Act, 2022: The act provided that Metropolitan Corporation and Municipal Corporation will be established in Nine (9) big cities and Fourteen (14) growing cities respectively. Elections yet to be held.

Advantages of Local Government System:

• Local government is a nursery for democracy

• Local representatives are accountable to locals

• Better understanding of local issues

• Development of infrastructure and allocation of resources at local level

• Generates revenue from their own resources

• Job opportunities for the locals

• A sense of unity among citizens to be a part of management and politics

Development Administration vs Administrative Development

Development Administration:

Social, economic and political development through Public Administration.

Administrative Development:

Increasing and improving the capabilities of the administrative system for effective development administration. 

Role of Bureaucracy in Development Administration in developing countries:

    Development administration is the social economic and political development of a state or Nation. Before concluding what is the role of Bureaucracy in development administration, we should define what is social, economic and political development. Social development is the development in social affairs of community like equal distribution of resources among citizens, maintaining law and order, equality and non-discrimination among citizens, neutrality of bureaucracy, modern techniques used in handling public affairs and provision of all necessary health facilities. Secondly, economic development is the increase in the resources of the state. How would the state increase its resources? The state would collect tax duties, excise, customs, withholding tax, and income tax to increase its Inland Revenue.  We know that the collection of tax is the job of Bureaucracy. Thirdly, political development is the development in political fields i.e. political culture, increase in political participation, civil supremacy, transparency in elections and smooth transfer of power among political parties. In all these fields, bureaucracy plays its pivotal role. If the Bureaucracy would do its job faithfully, it would collect more and more revenue for the state and the state would be economically developed. Political parties come and go, but bureaucracy remains in the field to do its assigned job. Legislation is dependent on civil servants in policy making procedure, which makes bureaucracy powerful enough to strengthen itself.

    

    In developing countries including Pakistan, bureaucracy’s role in development administration is undermined because of given reasons:

• Poor economy
• Lack of resources
• Lag behind in IT (Information Technology)
• Infrastructure (poor facilities)
• Unskilled supportive staff
• Negative role of Politicians (political affiliation or political pressure)
• Targeted accountability

What is New Public Management?

New Public Management is the series of the modern reforms like efficiency, performance and economy in public service from 1980 onwards. It was a reaction against inefficient traditional public administration. It is also known as managerialism.

Characteristics:

• Anti-bureaucratic/anti-hierarchical
• Citizen empowerment and client oriented – socially conscious
• Competition
• Decentralisation
• Managerial support
• Cost-efficient – Financial control
• Efficiency
• Effectiveness
• Economy

It was introduced in developed states and gradually it moved towards some developing states. Till now, in Pakistan, it has never been fully optimized. Somehow, it is hoped that very soon, it would become the need of the time to use it.

What is Public Sector Innovation and factors which hamper it in Pakistan?

Public Sector Innovation is the improvement in the public service delivery, especially efficiency, effectiveness, cost-efficiency, citizen-satisfaction etc. Innovation in public sector makes it very useful and easy for the public to deal with. Citizens are satisfied by innovation in public sector. Because every innovation in public sector use new public management tools, which removes barriers like formalities and red tap boundaries of so called public servants and make them accountable to the public. 

    In Pakistan, there is a dire need of public sector innovation because corruption and governance issues has lost confidence and trust of citizens towards government institutes. Some major and important factor are given below.

Factors which hamper public sector innovation in Pakistan:

1. Lack of motivation, flexibility and resources

2. Hierarchy (innovative functions/powers centered in few hands)

3. Educational level of citizens

How to innovate public sector in Pakistan?

1. Public Participation

2. Revive the course and training pattern of civil servants

3. Decentralization

4. Increase educational level of citizens

Public Service Motivation by James L. Perry. Why people join public sector?

Public Service Motivation (PSM) is an attribute which explains that why an individual has interest in serving public and links his personal interest with public interest. This theory also answers that why people join government employment. 

Why people join government employment according to James L. Perry:

• Attraction to public policy making
• A desire to serve the public interest
• Compassion
• Self-sacrifice

Which factors motivates to be a government employee?

• Pay
• Job security
• Power
• Position within an organization 
• Socialization
• Institutional values 
• Beliefs
• Ideology
• Job characteristics
• Organizational incentives
• Work environment 
• Obligation
• Satisfaction
• Balance of power 
• Career growth
• Retirement
• Health benefits

Impact of Privatization on role and scope of Bureaucracy.

In this article we will discuss What is Privatization? What is the impact of privatization on bureaucracy? Negative or Positive, Advantages & Disadvantages of Privatization?, Privation and Nationalization in Pakistan

    Privatization is the making of state departments public sector organization / state owned enterprises by replacing bureaucracy with private managers. Privatization focused on efficiency, cost efficiency and improved management.

    Privatization has reduced the interference of both the politicians and bureaucrats. But this arguments sets only in developed nations not in developing states like Pakistan and India. Here, privatization is a short term treatment and a long term disease. Every new government cures the economic deficit by privatize its public assets.

    Another impact of privatization on public administration (bureaucracy) is that state manages the state affairs especially execution related affairs through state officials (bureaucrats). Hence the less or non-interference of state in state owned enterprises may be a bigger challenge in the near future.

Advantages of Privatization:

1. Efficiency

2. Competition

3. Better management

4. Non-interference of politics and bureaucracy

5. Enhance productivity

6. Financial improvement

7. More customer-care

8. Achievement based earning

9. Flexibility

Disadvantages of Privatization:

1. Not accountable before state

2. Increase wages

3. Self-interest above national interest

4. Increase price

5. Private monopoly

6. Employee concerns

7. Non-democratic

8. Divided administration

9. Huge debt stock

10. Evasion of taxpayer money

11. Short term remedy and long-term consequences

    Nationalization process in Pakistan started by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (PPP) and privatization process was started by Nawaz Sharif (PMLN) & PM Shaukat Aziz (President Pervez Musharraf).

(This topic also important for Political Science)

What is Prismatic Sala model of Fred Riggs? Public Administration in under-developing countries

          Fred Riggs was a French political scientist and known for his work in comparative Public Administration. He presented a model to understand the under-developing society and malpractices by public administration, especially the role of bureaucracy and incompetency of politicians. He predicted this model by presenting the example of prism.

He referred prism as a tool to transform society from underdeveloped phase to developed phase. Hence, the period during this changing phase is developing phase. He named the society as fused, prismatic and diffracted.

Before passing through prism: Fused

During passing through prism: Prismatic

After passing through prims: Diffraction

Fused society: Kingship

Prismatic society: Bureaucracy is dominated

Diffracted society: developed state

           He further discussed prismatic society. One who is closer to administration get more benefit. Bureaucracy works for its own interest. Although administration becomes more powerful and capable but administration becomes inefficient. Bureaucrats make public policies because of incapability of politicians. Favoritism and nepotism prevail.

Budget making process in Pakistan | Types

In Pakistan, the fiscal year is from 1st July to 30th June.

The National Assembly and Provincial Assemblies approve national and provincial budgets respectively.

Budget making process:

1. The Ministry of Finance sends Budget Call Circulars to the ministries. (in October)

2. All the ministries prepare and scrutinize their budget proposals. (Nov-March)

3. The Standing Committees send recommendations to the Ministries. (by 31th March)

4. Ministry of Planning and Reform approves Development Budget (April-May)

5. Cabinet approves Budget (May)

6. Budget is presented in the National Assembly/copy is sent to the Senate for Recommendations. (in early June)

7. President approves Budget (before 1st July)

The Budget is divided into two sections:

1. Recurring/Revenue/Current/Non-development Budget: This includes all expenditures related to the administration, foreign debt, national defense, etc. If revenue receipts are more than current expenditure, the surplus amount goes to the Capital Budget to meet the developmental expenditures. In other cases, the government has to borrow to meet the deficit.

2. Development Budget/Capital Expenditure: Development budget is used to enlarge material assets of the state i.e. to enlarge/improve the physical resources, improve education and skills of people, development programs, etc. Development expenditure is also called capital expenditure, which is met from surplus revenue and reserve funds. Development expenditure is allocated in the budget and is prepared by the Planning & Reform Commission with consultation with the Finance Ministry and provincial governments.

Every year, in October, the Budget Wing of the Ministry of Finance issues a Budget Call Circular to all the federal ministries/agencies to prepare and submit next fiscal year’s budget estimates. Giving proper attention to the past and current expenditures, budget estimates are prepared by the ministries in advance, and the Budget Orders are sent to the concerned accounts offices. The Auditor General of Pakistan sends copies of the approved budget orders to the Budget Wing of the Ministry of Finance.

The Budget Wing also issues an Office Memorandum in October to all the ministries to submit their development expenditures to the Ministry of Planning. Moreover, defense budget estimates are submitted to the secretary of the Ministry of Defense. The remaining process is the same.

Country’s resources are estimated for the coming fiscal year. Moreover, available resources and additional taxes are also included in the available revenue.

After complete scrutiny by the Ministry of Finance, this financial bill seeks Cabinet approval. Then it goes to the NA and at the same time a copy of the bill is sent to the Senate for her recommendations, to which NA is not bound. At the end it gets presidential assent before 1st of July. After approval, the Finance Minister reads the Budget in the National Assembly.

Weakness in Budget system in Pakistan:

• Short discussion time (Average 10-12 working days). Whereas, in India discussion time is 75 days.

• Limited role of the Standing Committees.

• Supplementary or Excess Budget (Executive control over budget making and approval).

• Non-interference of state-holders and civil society.

• No questionnaire over budget performance in the NA.

Performance-based Budget: In this type, resources are allocated to achieve a certain result. Funds allocation is based on expected results rather than past estimates and political priorities. Free primary education, tree plantation, etc. like projects are funded on the basis of performance. The idea of performance budget lies beneath the word ‘result’, because performance budget prioritizes results/outcomes rather than resource allocation. Moreover, we can not say that it is cost-effective.

According to Segal and Summers, it has three elements:

1. Ultimate outcome of a particular performance

2. Different strategies to achieve a result

3. Activities performed to achieve a certain result

Advantages:

• Better Cost Estimates

• Finds Areas for Improvement

• Clear Purpose

• Improvement in Performance

Disadvantages:

• Subjective

• Strong system of Evaluation

• Easy to Manipulate

• Difficult for long-term

• Costly

Zero-based Budget: In this type, all expenses are justified and approved for a new period according to the current needs rather than previous records & previous budget. Zero based budgeting is a different approach rather than traditional budgeting methods, where the previous budget is often used for next budget estimates. Moreover, all unnecessary spending is eliminated.

Advantages:

• Accuracy

• Efficiency

• Cost-efficiency

Disadvantages:

• Managerial Time

• Slower Response Time

• Time consuming

Incremental Budget: In this type, little changings are done to the previous budget.

Advantages:

• Simplicity

• Easy to Implement

• Easy to see Impact of Change

• Funding Stability

• Reduces Internal Rivalry

Disadvantages:

• Incremental Nature

• Risk-Taking

• Extra Spending

• Discourage Innovation

Balanced Budget: In this type, revenues collected are equal to the expenditures. Means neither surplus nor deficit.

An incumbent government shall allocate resources to program A instead of program B according to the following types:

1. If the government has a little time, it will apply Incremental Budgeting.

2. If an increase in the performance of a program is required, it would go for Performance Budgeting.

3. If a thorough review is required, Zero Budgeting could be implied.

4. If some programs have priority over others, then Priority Based Budgeting is best.

5. To increase public participation and transparency, Participatory Budgeting is implemented.

I think performance based budgeting is the most appropriate for public administration, because it is the best tool to achieve a certain result, using multiple strategies. Moreover, with this type performance could easily be improved.

Budget Deficit: When Government spending exceeds over total revenue generated through taxes and through other means.

Consequences:

1. Bad impact on economic development

2. human development index level decreases

3. Increase in debt

4. Inflation increases

5. Investors have no confidence

6. Decrease foreign investment

7. Political instability

Strategies employed by the governments to manage deficit:

1. Loans/borrowings from IMF, World Bank and friendly countries

2. Increase tax network

3. Privatization of public assets

4. Fiscal austerity measures

5. Decrease funds and freezing special allowances of government employees

6. Reduction in government spendings

7. Slow pace development work

8. Increase duty or ban on luxury import items

9. Increase interest rate

This article is the answer to the following questions of Competitive Examination in Pakistan i.e. CSS and PMS:

Q3. A Great deal of political debate in the last two decades has focused on strategies for controlling the federal budget deficit (spending exceeds revenue). Why is this an important issue for the government and what strategies have been employed by governments to manage the deficit? Give examples. (CSS 2023)

Q4. “On what basis shall we allocate resources to program A instead of program B,” is the perennial statement in public sector budgeting. Identify and discuss at least five attempts, found in the budgeting literature, used to answer V.O. Key’s famous budgeting question. Which type of budgeting system is most appropriate for public administration? Why do you feel this way? (CSS 2022)

Q7. Governmental budgets remain an area of general concern as well as controversy. Considerable attention is given to taxation and other sources of governmental revenues. Discuss the federal budget process in Pakistan paying special attention to its ability to find governmental activity and help to regulate the economy’s business cycle. (CSS 2022)

Q5. The idea of performance-budget lies beneath the word ‘result’. In the light of this statement examine the elements of performance-based budgeting with reference to Pakistan. (CSS 2021)

Q7. Discuss in detail the budgeting process of Pakistan. Are you satisfied with the process? Discuss with practical examples. (CSS 2019)

Q8. Zero based budgeting (CSS 2017)

Q5: Governmental budgets remain an area of general concern as well as controversy. Considerable attention is given to taxation and other sources of governmental revenues. Discuss the federal budget process in Pakistan paying special attention to its ability to find governmental activity and help regulate the economy`s business cycle. (CSS 2016)

Q8: Write a detailed note on the following: (CSS 2016)

1. Incremental budgeting

2. Planning programming budgeting system

3. Dissensus budgeting

Q8. Performance budgeting (CSS 2013)

Q5. What is performance budgeting? Bring out its merits, limitations and difficulties. (CSS 2012)

Q6. What is the role of politics in the budgetary process? Explain several concerns such as representation, consensus, coalition building, and locus of power in allocating funds. (PMS 2021)

Q4: Line item budgeting is conventionally used for provincial and federal government budgets of Pakistan. Suggest an alternative public budgeting approach for government budgets in Pakistan. Discuss why the suggested approach would be more suitable and effective for achieving the current political and economic objectives of the government. (PMS 2020)

Q3: Financial management is an important part of government activities. Discuss some of the concerns a budget planner deals with Capital budgeting, Debt management and Risk management. (PMS 2019)

Q2: Budgeting is an important aspect of financial management. Discuss its role as policy and management tool in public organizations, critically evaluate the salient principles of budgeting and suggest ways for improvement to increase performance of public sector organizations. (PMS 2017)